antisemistism, = imperialism, totalitarianism

SPRING = 2000

HISTORY = 450-801

M: = 6:00-8:30=97DU-229

antisemitism,=20 imperialism, & totalitarianism

Zouhair = Ghazzal

zouhairghazzal.com=

CC-545, M:=20 5:30-6:00

LT-926,=20 T:5:30-6:00

zghazza@luc.edu

voice/fax: = (312)=20 803-0532

The purpose of = this=20 weekly seminar is to discuss the links between antisemitism, = imperialism, and=20 totalitarianism. In her groundbreaking work, The Origins of=20 Totalitarianism (originally = published=20 in 1951), the Jewish and German born political philosopher Hannah = Arendt, who=20 had just moved to the US to escape the atrocities of Nazism, was the = first to=20 link the three historical phenomena of antisemitism, imperialism, and=20 totalitarianism together in what now constitutes the full text of the=20 Origins. At one level, = the=20 interrelations between such phenomena is pretty obvious (even though not = much=20 has been done in the research which has been accumulating in the last = two=20 decades, to reexamine the conceptual links and analyses proposed by = Arendt). For=20 one, even though antisemitism was a widespread ideology throughout = Europe by the=20 turn of the century, it was nevertheless only the Nazi totalitarian = regime which=20 began systematically arresting and deporting Jews to the concentration = camps=20 (the fascist Vichy government constituted for its part a brief = interlude,=20 probably more important to French society itself than the rest of = Europe). For=20 another, both imperialism and totalitarianism denote a crisis of the = European=20 nation-state. In fact, the traditional nineteenth-century role of the=20 nation-state could not fit anymore with the rapid expansion of = capitalism and=20 the need for new markets: thus imperialism also marked the end of the = idea of=20 the nation-state. On the other hand, both Bolshevism and Nazism mocked = the=20 traditional nation-state either as bourgeois or as =93narrow=94 in its = scope (e.g.=20 favoring one class over another); and both sought extra-national = experiences in=20 their own terms either by means of an internalization of the labor = movement for=20 the Bolsheviks, or through military expansionism for the Nazis, both of = which=20 wrecked apart many of the European nation-states. More tellingly perhaps = is the=20 fact that both Soviet and Nazi totalitarianisms mocked all the legal, = political,=20 and social values of the traditional European nation-state. In short, = the=20 phenomena of antisemitism, imperialism, and totalitarianism, all = combined, were=20 what brought the first serious set of crises in Europe, which culminated = with=20 the two world wars, since the dissolution of the old feudal states and = their=20 gradual replacement with the modern nation-states.

&nbs= p; =20 The intermediary Absolutist states still operated with the old = feudal=20 notion of the Sovereign whose body was the body = politic, which=20 was an outcome the King=92s Two Bodies doctrine=97the finite physical = body and the=20 everlasting body politic=97and whose quintessential figure was the = British=20 monarchy. It was the explosion of such a doctrine that led the passage = to the=20 modern nation-state. The new doctrine, which focuses on the rights of = the=20 individual rather than = those of=20 the Sovereign, found its expression in the philosophy of the = Aufkl=E4rung and the=20 Droits de l=92homme et du citoyen of the French = Revolution. In fact, the modern nation-state acknowledges individual = rights,=20 which are protected both legally (by means of a modernized judicial = apparatus)=20 and politically (universal suffrage). Not only is there no more = Sovereign as=20 representative of the body politic, but the society-of-individuals needs = to=20 protect itself from the abuses of the state and its bureaucracy, hence = the=20 notion of =93civil society=94 and that of the =93public sphere,=94 which = assumes=20 individuals communicating freely on public matters=97a revival of the = Greek=20 polis, but with = extended=20 rights and duties. The nation-state assumes =93autonomous=94 = individuals, which have=20 rights and duties towards the state and towards each other. Those = individuals=20 are also legally protected, and one essential aspect of their political = rights=20 is the right of free expression, which in turn leads to universal = suffrage. Thus=20 individuals enjoy the right to question all the laws, and the political = and=20 social practices of their nation. Nothing is divine anymore and nothing = is=20 sacred either, but anything could be the scrutinized by any of the = individuals=20 of the nation-state. The nation-state thus assumes a minimal degree of=20 homogenization, which is first established on a de facto basis by means = of=20 language. Thus, all the European nation-states are by definition each = tied to a=20 single language, and when, as the Swiss case shows, a dominant language = is=20 impossible, federalism imposes itself as a political=20 necessity.

&nbs= p; =20 Antisemitism, which as an ideology grew strongly in Europe during = the=20 last three decades of the nineteenth century, and had already begun few = decades=20 earlier in Russia, resulted from the impasse that the majority of the = European=20 Jews found themselves in vis-=E0-vis the nation-state. In fact, the = Jews, despite=20 their heterogeneous formation, behaved like a =93nation=94 without = territory, and=20 which was spread all over Europe (and the world); and spoke in a mixture = of=20 Hebrew and Yiddish, in addition to the various European national = languages. The=20 nation-state, however, does not accept the idea of an individual whose = primary=20 loyalty goes to a group, be it religious or otherwise. The dilemma of = the Jews=20 was one of assimilation versus preservation. Assimilation would have = implied a=20 full subservience and loyalty to the nation-state, hence a complete = integration=20 so that the Jewishness of those individuals would have = become their=20 second nature, or a private matter, if you wish. Moreover, the = nation-state=97at=20 least in principle=97is unable to deal with groups as such since its = legal and=20 political systems protect individual rights only. = What=20 complicated matters even more forcefully was the fact that the old = feudal=20 states, out of which the modern nation-states emerged, dealt for the = most part=20 with the Jews, whose moneylenders were mostly needed and appreciated, as = special=20 status groups. Even though the financial expertise of the Jewish = moneylenders=20 was still appreciated, the nation-state general policy was one of = multiplying=20 the financial resources of the state, hence the Jews became one = possibility=20 among several, and the big Jewish families ceased to be protected by a = feudal=20 prince or privileged by the early modern European states. Needless to = say,=20 however, the Jews were not a coherent group, and with the loosening of = the bonds=20 between the Jewish financiers and the state, it looks as if the Jews = were pushed=20 in toto to assimilate within a middle class = status.

This course = will=20 therefore focus on the historical links, in the last two centuries, = between=20 antisemitism, imperialism, and totalitarianism. Even though our focus = will be=20 mainly on a theme rather than a geographic area, most of the readings=20 concentrate on Europe, and even when other societies are concerned (e.g. = Egypt,=20 or the South Pacific islands), it is in their relationship with a form = of=20 colonialism or imperialism (e.g. the British). However, it would = definitely be=20 worth examining our conceptual framework for the American societies = beginning=20 with the late nineteenth century. How does antisemitism in the US differ = from=20 its European counterparts? Is there a US imperial experience similar = from the=20 French and British (the Philippines and Mexico during the nineteenth = century,=20 and more recently, Korea, Vietnam, Panama, etc.)? And finally, even = though the=20 US never went through a totalitarian experience as such, how does the US = relate to = totalitarian=20 societies beginning with the Nazi and Soviet regimes, up to many of the=20 societies in the world today?

GENERAL

There are weekly=20 readings that you=92re expected to discuss collectively in class. Your=20 participation is essential for the success of the course. You might be = also=20 occasionally requested to prepare a presentation on a chapter or book = which are=20 part of the weekly assignments. Class presentations and discussions = shall=20 count as one-fifth of the total grade. Presentations should be = improvised and 5=20 to 10 minutes long. Do not prepare a written presentation. The purpose = of=20 presentations is to let you check on your readings and give you the = opportunity=20 to perform and ask questions publicly. In addition to the routine weekly = presentations, students are requested, after submission of a = first-draft, to=20 make a short presentation on their papers.

=20 Besides the two-draft research paper (see below the section on = papers),=20 you=92re expected to submit three interpretive essays. The final = grade will be=20 calculated on the basis of one-fifth for the paper and one-fifth for = each=20 interpretive essay. All interpretive essays are=20 take-home. The=20 purpose of the interpretative essays is to give you the opportunity to = go=20 =93beyond=94 the literal meaning of the text and adopt interpretive and = =93textual=94=20 techniques. A failing grade in all interpretive essays means also a = failing=20 grade for the course, whatever your performance in the paper is. All = essays=20 and papers must be submitted on time according to the deadlines set = below. If=20 you=92re absent from class for a deadline, you may e-mail your = essay-paper as an=20 attached file in MS Word format, or fax it to the number above, or drop = it in my=20 mailbox (CC-502, LT-910).

Class=20 presentations & discussions, and e-mail discussion = list

20%

First=20 Interpretive Essay

20%

Second Interpretive=20 Essay

20%

Final Interpretive=20 Essay

20%

Term = Paper

20%

READINGS

=95 = Weeks 1, 2, 3=20 & 4 (January 17, 24, 31 & February 7):

Hannah Arendt,=20 The Origins of Totalitarianism = (Harcourt).

=95 = Week 5=20 (February 14):

Marrus &=20 Paxton, Vichy France & the Jews = (Stanford).

February 14: first interpretive=20 essay

=95 = Week 6=20 (February 21):

J=FCrgen=20 Osterhammel, Colonialism (Markus = Wiener).

=95 = Weeks 7=20 (February 28):

Timothy=20 Mitchell, Colonizing Egypt = (California).

March 6-11: Mid-Semester=20 Break

=95 = Week 8 (March=20 13):

Nicholas=20 Thomas, Entangled Objects = (Harvard).

March 13: second interpretive=20 essay

=95 = Week 9 (March=20 20):

Marshall=20 Sahlins, Islands of History = (Chicago).

=95 = Weeks 10, 11=20 & 12 (March 27, April 3 & 10):

Fran=E7ois Furet,=20 The Passing of an Illusion = (Chicago).

March 27: first draft=20 deadline

April = 3:=20 preliminary presentation of first-drafts

=95 = Week 13 (April=20 17):

Ernest Gellner,=20 Encounters With Nationalism = (Routledge).

April 17: final interpretive=20 essay

=95 = Week 14 (April=20 24):

Discussion and presentation = of=20 term-papers

(if you=92re unable to meet = for this=20 last session, make an appointment: you=92ll not receive a grade unless = you=92ve=20 completed a presentation of your paper.)

Tuesday, April 25: final draft=20 deadline

PAPERS

You are = requested to=20 write one major research paper to be submitted during the last session, = Tuesday,=20 April 25. You will have to submit, however, a first draft of this paper = on=20 Tuesday, March 28. The first draft should be as complete as possible and = follow=20 the same presentation and writing guidelines as your final draft, but it = won=92t=20 be graded. Only your final draft will count as one-fifth of the total = grade.=20 The purpose of the first draft is to let you assess your research and = writing=20 skills and improve the final version of your paper. It is advisable that = you=20 choose a research topic and start preparing a bibliography as soon as = possible.=20 I would strongly recommend that you consult with me before making any = final=20 commitment. It would be preferable to keep the same topic for both = drafts. You=20 will be allowed, however, after prior consultation, to change your topic = if you=20 wish to do so.

&nbs= p; =20 You may choose any topic related to the social, economic, = political,=20 and cultural history of antisemitism, imperialism, and totalitarianism.=20 Papers should be analytical and conceptual. Avoid pure = narratives and chronologies and construct your paper around a main=20 thesis.

Kate L. = Turabian, A=20 Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and = Dissertations, 5th ed., = Chicago:=20 University of Chicago Press, 1987. Intended for students and other = writers of=20 papers not written for publication. Useful material on notes and=20 bibliographies.

Keep in mind = the=20 following when preparing your preliminary and final=20 drafts:

=B7 =20 once you=92ve = decided on a=20 paper-topic and prepared a preliminary bibliography, send an abstract = and=20 bibliography of your topic to the class-list <h104h450-l@luc.edu> = (see=20 below). Your abstract should include: (i) title; (ii) description; (iii) = sources; (iv) methodology (e.g. suggestions on how to read=20 sources).

=B7 =20 preliminary = drafts=20 should be submitted on time, November 2. If you=92re unable to attend = class that=20 evening, drop your draft in my mailbox (LT-910, = CC-502).

=B7 =20 preliminary = drafts=20 should be complete and include footnotes and an annotated=20 bibliography.

=B7 =20 do not submit = an outline=20 as a first draft.

=B7 =20 incomplete and = poorly=20 written first drafts will not be accepted, and you=92ll be advised to = revise your=20 first draft completely.

=B7 =20 if you submit = a single=20 draft throughout the semester, you=92ll receive X as a final grade (WF = on your=20 transcript).

=B7 =20 the oral = presentation is=20 an essential aspect of your grade; if you can=92t attend the last = session, request=20 an appointment.

=B7 =20 your final = draft should=20 take into consideration all the relevant comments provided on your = earlier=20 draft.

=B7 =20 if you=92re = interested in=20 comments on your final paper and interpretive essay, request an = appointment by=20 e-mail.

Please use the = following=20 guidelines regarding the format of your papers:

=B7 =20 use 8x10 white = paper=20 (the size and color of this paper). Do not use legal size or colored=20 paper.

=B7 =20 use a = typewriter, laser=20 printer or a good inkjet printer and hand in the = original.

=B7 =20 only type on = one side of=20 the paper.

=B7 =20 should be = double spaced,=20 with single spaced footnotes at the end of each page and an annotated = bibliography at the end. = (The=20 bibliography that follows in the next section is=20 annotated.)

=B7 =20 keep ample = left and=20 right margins for comments and corrections of at least 1.25 inches=20 each.

=B7 =20 all pages = should be=20 numbered and stapled.

=B7 =20 a cover page = should=20 include the following: paper=92s title, course number and section, your = name,=20 address, e-mail, and telephone.

E-MAIL=20 DISCUSSION LIST

An open e-mail = discussion list is available: each message=97whether mine or from any = student=97will=20 reach anyone else on the list, so that every subscriber could directly = write to=20 the list.

History 104 = & 450:=20 <H104H450-L@luc.edu>

The list=20 includes students from two History courses. History 104 is a core course = on Asia=20 from a historical and anthropological perspectives. History 450 is a = graduate=20 course on antisemitism, imperialism, and = totalitarianism.

The purpose = of this=20 electronic listserv is to discuss issues relevant to both courses, and = current=20 political and social matters as well. The focus, however, shall be = primarily on=20 the readings themselves since they represent our primary source for = dealing with=20 the complexities of these civilizations.

To join = the list,=20 please send an e-mail message to:

&nbs= p; = ; =20 listproc@luc.edu

and include as = your=20 e-mail message (leaving the Subject: field blank, if=20 possible):

&nbs= p; = ; =20 subscribe H104H450-L first-name = last-name

e.g., Janine = Doe=97you=20 would type in:

&nbs= p; = ; =20 subscribe H104H450-L Janine Doe

GroupWise = Users at=20 Loyola University Chicago: Please preface the 'listproc' address (or=20 subscription address) with 'internet:' in the To: field. For=20 example:

&nbs= p; = ; =20 To: internet:listproc@luc.edu

Once you=92ve = successfully=20 subscribed (you=92ll receive a confirmation message with instructions), = send all=20 messages to the list=92s address:

&nbs= p; = ; =20 H104H450-L@luc.edu

Your message = will be=20 automatically forwarded to all the list=92s subscribers. You should also = receive a=20 duplicate of your own message.

To unsubscribe = send an=20 e-mail to listproc@luc.edu with the following = message:

&nbs= p; = ; =20 unsubscribe h104h450-l first-name last-name

Do not send = any mail to=20 my private address <zghazzal@midway.uchicago.edu>, except for = appointments=20 or personal problems regarding the course. Suggestions for = term-papers topics=20 should be posted directly at the class-list.

Problems in = joining the=20 list? Questions? Send an e-mail to Brian Kinne=20 <bkinne@luc.edu>.

notes from=20 it services:

From: "Jack = Corliss,=20 Loyola University Chicago"=20 <jcorlis@orion.it.luc.edu>

Please note = that about=20 96% of all registered students have e-mail accounts, on the GroupWise = e-mail=20 system (university e-mail system). We no longer encourage students to = obtain=20 Orion accounts unless they plan to do personal web page design and=20 development.

&nbs= p; =20 Of course, students can use whatever e-mail account they have to=20 subscribe and post to the class discussion list including AOL and = Entereact. If=20 you want to send attachments to the students on the list then they = should find=20 out their e-mail system handles attachments.

&nbs= p; =20 You should also know that as of May 1997, anyone using the = computer=20 workstations in any of the University computing centers and = public-access labs=20 are required to have university network access account (which we call = the UVID).=20 This is required whether the student plans to access the Internet = resources,=20 their GroupWise or Orion e-mail, use word-processing to write their = papers,=20 whatever.

&nbs= p; =20 Therefore, students are assigned these accounts automatically. = However,=20 if a student does not remember his or her university network access=20 account/password, and registered late this year, then the student will = need to=20 go to the computing center to have the password reassigned or a network = access=20 account set up (usually takes 24 hours).

WHAT I HAVE = JUST=20 PRESENTED ABOVE IS VERY IMPORTANT INFORMATION. Please be prepared to = direct the=20 student to one of the computing centers if he or she does not know nor = remember=20 the network access account or password.

&nbs= p; =20 Please note that some students may know this network access = account as=20 the GroupWise account and password=97an unfortunate nomenclature=97but = most likely=20 this is one and the same. Previously, we referred to these as GroupWise = accounts=20 but now we are calling them university IDs (or UVID), or university = network=20 access accounts.

&nbs= p; =20 The computing centers have had to deal with this last semester, = so please=20 do not hesitate to refer any students to the computing centers for = assistance,=20 or they can call the Help Desk at 4-4444 and the Help Desk staff will = re-assign=20 a network access password.

RECOMMENDED=20 READING

Historiographical=20 Methods

History &=20 the Social Sciences

The = works of =93social=20 scientists=94 like Karl Marx, Max Weber, Durkheim, Michel Foucault, = Habermas,=20 Claude L=E9vi-Strauss, Pierre Bourdieu, Hannah Arendt, Norbert Elias, = Georges=20 Dum=E9zil, and Sigmund Freud, had a tremendous impact on the writing of = history=20 throughout the twentieth century.

Jacques = Ranci=E8re, The=20 Names of History: On the Poetics of Knowledge (University = of=20 Minnesota Press, 1994). This is the best and most challenging book I = have read=20 in recent years which describes very aggressively the current status of = the most=20 recent historiographical methods. Ranci=E8re argues that Michelet was = the real=20 precursor to the Annales school = (something that=20 Lucien Febvre acknowledged and was the first to see clearly). First, = Michelet=20 was probably the first to have voluntarily stepped out from a pure = history of=20 kings and political events into some kind of =93social history=94 and = showed a great=20 interest into this category which he broadly defined as =93Le Peuple=94 = (the=20 people); second, Michelet was sensitive to the = document as a starting = point for=20 his analysis: he created this unique method of reading = into a document by = creating=20 his own narrative out of them and by listening to their silences. But = Michelet=20 could only create a dynamics out of a narrative where the Hobbesian = Monarch does=20 not play anymore the central role by transforming = France as the real = Subject of=20 history=97something that the Annales could not = keep up with=20 anymore. The Annales in fact = transformed its=20 historical =93topics=94 into objects of research. = In other=20 words, France, for example, becomes an object of research like European=20 feudalism or the Mediterranean. Thus by stating that every entity in the = social=20 world is worth being an object of scientific research, the=20 Annales has ipso = facto robbed=20 traditional historiography, including that of Michelet, from its deepest = foundations. Which leaves us today, towards the end of an eventful = twentieth=20 century, with a big problem: How can we rehabilitate the role of the=20 subject=97that is, any subject of = democratic=20 societies=97in historical processes?

Hunt, Lynn, = ed. The=20 New Cultural History. Berkeley: = University=20 of California Press, 1989. A collection of articles that discusses the = new=20 =93cultural history,=94 a recent trend that focuses on the importance of = language in=20 understanding political and social trends=97the =93linguistic=20 turn.=94

&nbs= p; =20 Momigliano, Arnaldo. The Classical Foundations of Modern=20 Historiography. Berkeley: = University=20 of California Press, 1991.

&nbs= p; =20 Palmer, Bryan D. Descent into Discourse. The Reification of = Language=20 and the Writing of Social History. = Philadelphia: Temple=20 University Press, 1990.

&nbs= p; =20 Reddy, William M. Money and Liberty in Modern Europe. A = Critique of=20 Historical Understanding. Cambridge: = Cambridge=20 University Press, 1987. A critical study on modern historiographical = trends=20 related in particular to social and economic = history.

&nbs= p; =20 Scott, Joan Wallach. Gender and the Politics of=20 History. New York: = Columbia=20 University Press, 1988. Wallach relates gender to history and language = and thus=20 joins the =93linguistic turn=94 school that focuses on the importance of = language in=20 structuring social and economic movements.

&nbs= p; =20 B. H. Moss, =93Republican Socialism and the Making of the Working = Class in=20 Britain, France, and the United States: A Critique of Thompsonian = Culturalism,=94=20 Comparative Study in Society and History, 35(2) 1993, = 390-413.=20 This essay is an attempt to analyze the impact that had Thompson=92s = Making of=20 the English Working Class on studies of = labor=20 movements in France, England, and the United States, on the one hand, = and the=20 weaknesses of such =93culturalist=94 analyses (as opposed to the Marxist = and=20 neo-Marxist) on the other. Moss concludes that what these studies have=20 unknowingly confirmed is the traditional and Marxist view that socialism = arises=20 when intellectuals bearing collectivist ideas join with workers = undergoing a=20 process of proletarianization.

&nbs= p; =20 Carrard, Philippe. Poetics of the New History: French = Historical=20 Discourse from Braudel to Chartier. Parallax Re-visions of = Culture and=20 Society, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992. Excellent = introduction=20 to the Annales=20 tradition in historiography. More broadly, Carrard shows that the = discipline of=20 history is now marked by fragmentation and that histoire=20 totale (in the = strong=20 sense of the project) is dead.

&nbs= p; =20 Editorial. =93Histoire et sciences sociales. Un tournant = critique?=94=20 Annales =C9.S.C. 2=20 (April-March 1988): 291-293. A key editorial of the = Annales in which a =93crisis=94 in = contemporary=20 historiography was admitted for the first time and a rapprochement with = the rest=20 of the social sciences is now considered as essential for the writing of = a new=20 (more fragmented) history. The notion of =93document=94 is also = questioned and a=20 more =93textual=94 approach seem to be suggested. Some of the responses = to this=20 editorial have been collected in the special issue of November-December = 1989=20 celebrating the 60th anniversary of the Annales.

&nbs= p; =20 Dominick LaCapra, History & Criticism (Cornell University Press, = 1985). With=20 essays on Ginzburg, mentalit=E9 history, and the history of = criticism,=20 LaCapra=92s enterprise in providing a critical perspective on = contemporary=20 historiography is probably the best in US academia = today.

&nbs= p; =20 Michel de Certeau, L=92=C9criture de = l=92histoire (Paris: Gallimard, 1975), = English trans.=20 The Writing of History.

The works of Moses Finley = (Ancient=20 Economy, Use and Abuse of History, World of Odysseus, Ancient Slavery = and Modern=20 Ideology), = Detienne=20 (Gardens of Adonis),=20 Vernant (Myth & Society), and Vidal-Naquet (Le = chasseur=20 noir), and few = others,=20 have transformed the field of ancient Greek history from the traditional = linguistic and philological approaches of the old texts to social and = economic=20 history=97the Annales type, and also the Frankfurt School cultural = pessimism (for=20 Finley in particular).

David Cohen, Law, Sexuality, = and=20 Society. The Enforcement of Morals in Classical Athens (Cambridge University Press, = 1991).=20 Cohen poses the difficult and often omitted problem of the relationship = between=20 law, the norms, social practices, and ideology, and in order to study = the=20 =93hidden=94 and =93unavailable=94 sphere of social practices from the = classical Greek=20 literature, he assumes that contemporary Mediterranean societies, = studied by=20 anthropologists, have roughly similar practices that the Greeks. He then = confronts his texts with what they hide to see if all this makes sense. = Even=20 though Cohen ends up with some interesting results concerning the = private and=20 public, women, adultery, homosexuality, the law, and the polis, in ways=20 different from previous scholarship, many will find his extrapolations = and=20 cut-and-paste technique from the new to the old highly=20 controversial.

&nbs= p; =20 K. Dover, Greek Homosexuality (New York, 1978), is the most = classic=20 work on the subject of Greek =93homosexuality.=94

Peter Brown, The Body and = Society.=20 Men, Women, and Sexual Renunciation in Early Christanity (Columbia University Press, = 1988). In=20 nineteen chapters, and basing himself on original manuscripts, Peter = Brown is=20 very successful in describing attitudes of early Christians towards the = body and=20 sexuality. Augustine, in the last chapter, provides the = summa of the endless variations of = the early=20 Christians and their errings: fulfillment (salvation) is only achieved = in the=20 =93city of heaven.=94 What Christianity has introduced to the Greek and = Roman=20 world-views is the duality between mind and body, a dualism we still = live with=20 in different forms whether Cartesian or Freudian. The mind = =93controls=94 the body,=20 its appetites and drives, hence the mind controls the body=92s = sexuality. To the=20 early Christians, this meant sexual renunciation and virginity in order = to=20 preserve the integrity of the soul. Brown demarcates Roman sexuality = from the=20 Christian in his introductory chapters: Roman sexuality looks at women, = slaves,=20 and barbarians as inferiors, hence sex with women was riddled with = anxieties and=20 it was common for men to have sex with their slaves. Brown, however, = does not=20 see Christian renunciation as caused by Roman =93tolerance=94 and he = never provides=20 his readers with a sharp answer to the historical causes of Christian=20 asceticism. Instead, he portrays to us the variations of the Christian = model,=20 and, with this, a view of religion as an agglomeration of infinitesimal = efforts=20 comes up, or, in other words, how disparate views become public and = create an=20 institution=97the Church. Brown also provides an account of a=20 religion=97Christianity=97as a social movement with no state = control. Brown,=20 however, seems locked up in his texts and I would have wished more = social=20 history on the Roman family and marriage, the social roots of the early=20 Christians, and the Church and its clergy. Brown=92s tone seems also to = belong to=20 the 1980s, under the influence of Veyne and Foucault, which looks at = sexuality=20 as a discourse, or rather, as a discursive practice. Also by Peter = Brown,=20 Augustine of Hippo: A Biography (California University Press, = 1967),=20 The Cult of Saints=20 (Chicago University Press, 1981).

Arnaldo Momigliano, On = Pagans, Jews,=20 and Christians = (Wesleyan=20 University Press, 1987).

&nbs= p; =20 Ramsay MacMullen, Christianizing the Roman Empire, A.D.=20 100-400 (Yale = University=20 Press, 1984).

&nbs= p; =20 Wayne A. Meeks, The First Urban Christians: The Social World = of the=20 Apostle Paul = (Yale=20 University Press, 1983).

&nbs= p; =20 Robert L. Wilken, The Christians as the Romans Saw=20 Them (Yale = University=20 Press, 1984).

&nbs= p; =20 John Boswell, Christianity, Social Tolerance, and=20 Homosexuality = (Chicago=20 University Press, 1980). Written as a contribution to =93gay=94 history = within a=20 late twentieth-century political agenda, Boswell seems to have much more = talent=20 in =93gay activism=94 than intellectual history and textual analysis in = which he=20 doesn=92t seem much interested. If you don=92t mind a cut-and-paste = method in=20 analyzing texts, then there=92s a chance that you might like the Boswell = style.

Ernst H. Kantorowicz, The = King=92s Two=20 Bodies. A Study in Medieval Political Theology (Princeton University Press, = 1957). In a=20 first brilliantly written chapter, Kantorowicz argues that the King=92s = Two Bodies=20 doctrine achieved its full maturity in fifteenth- and sixteenth-century = England=20 during the reign of Elizabeth I, but was much weaker in its development = on the=20 Continent. Briefly, what the King=92s Two Bodies doctrine implied was = that the=20 King had two bodies, his own temporal body subject to sickness, = passions, and=20 death, and an immortal body, the =93body politic,=94 which was = constituted of all=20 the bodies and souls of the subjects of the Commonwealth. The novelty = was much=20 less in the duality of the system than with the notion that the immortal = part=20 was the =93body politic,=94 that is, it was made up of = all the citizen=92s wills and = desires as=20 represented = by the=20 Monarch. Needless to say that such a theory prepares for more elaborate=20 Hobbesian and Lockian systems of representation. Having sketched what he = calls=20 the King=92s Two Bodies =93legal fiction=94 in its mature phase, = Kantorowicz will=20 devote the rest of his book to a reconstruction of the variations of the = King=92s=20 Two Bodies doctrine since the eleventh century. The turning point here = was the=20 twelfth-thirteenth century, with Frederick II, when the King was not = seen=20 anymore as the impersonator of Christ but as the sole legislator of = Positive=20 Law. An overwhelming study which breaks up many academic barriers and = which sees=20 =93legal fiction=94 as constructing =93reality.=94

Jacques Le Goff, The Birth = of=20 Purgatory = (Chicago=20 University Press, 1984 [1981 for the French Gallimard edition]). This is = a=20 longue dur=E9e history=20 of the Purgatory, roughly from early Christianity till the twelfth and=20 thirteenth centuries when the Purgatory has achieved a more or less = completed=20 structure (even in its poetic form through Dante). Le Goff, however, is = eager=20 not to make his history =93evolutionary,=94 that is, he insists that the = history of=20 the Purgatory remains unpredictable despite early signs (with Augustine = in=20 particular) of a desire to spacialize something between hell and = heaven. This=20 creation of an additional space of judgment and repentance shall be = expressed=20 differently from one period to another, but by the thirteenth century = one thing=20 is certain: the Purgatory integrates well in the European societies = where the=20 judicial now plays a dominating and intermediary role between the = =93body politic=94=20 and =93society=94 (or =93civil society,=94 civitas). Le Goff=92s method is very = much=20 =93textual,=94 and even though he does well in integrating his material = with the=20 social trends of each period, one would have wished more social history, = in=20 particular for the thirteenth century when several things seem to come = together:=20 the political, religious, judicial, and economic.

Fernand = Braudel, The=20 Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip=20 II,=20 trans. Si=E2n Reynolds (New York: Harper & Row, 1973 [first French = edition=20 published in Paris by Armand Colin, 1949]). Picking up where Marc Bloch = and=20 Lucien Febvre (his =93Ma=EEtre de th=E8se=94), Braudel constructs a = thesis around the=20 Mediterranean as an object of study for what became the cult book of the = Annalistes: it=92s not = anymore Philip=20 II who occupies the center of the stage, but the Mediterranean as a = complex=20 object of geography, economics, and cultures at the = age of Philip II. = Actually,=20 Braudel dismisses the person of the King altogether as someone who was = not even=20 conscious of the importance of the Mediterranean: =93I do not believe = that the=20 word Mediterranean itself ever floated in his consciousness with the = meaning we=20 now give it, nor that it conjured up for him the images of light and = blue water=20 it has for us.=94 With this, Braudel created a fundamental rule for both = historians and social scientists: the historian does not have to = identify with=20 the =93subjects=94 of history anymore=97distance from what shines at the = surface has=20 become the golden rule (but wasn=92t it so for Marx and Freud?). But the = book,=20 half a century later, has also aged tremendously: Braudel never took = seriously=20 the claim he has set up for himself and for the discipline of history as = =93La=20 Reine des sciences sociales,=94 and he never borrowed much anyhow from = the=20 languages of the social sciences. The Mediterranean leaves us = struggling=20 with an array of questions concerning the role of the =93subject=94 and = =93culture=94 in=20 history.

Norbert Elias, = The=20 Civilizing Process (Blackwell, = 1994).=20 Originally published in Germany in 1939 in two separate parts, The = History of=20 Manners=20 and State Formation and Civilization, The = Civilizing=20 Process=20 sees the sixteenth century as the period which created a new set of = courtly=20 manners very different from the =93uncivilized,=94 barbaric and violent = Middle Ages:=20 manners in which shame and individuality have become crucial. In order = to=20 explain this sudden shift, Elias develops a theory of state formation = which=20 conceptualizes the Absolutist states (the new =93monopolies=94) as = having totally=20 eclipsed the old Feudal states based on territorial divisions. Elias=92 = analysis=20 combines what he calls the psycho-genetic and socio-genetic levels of = human=20 experience=97another terminology for the Weberian notion of subjective = and=20 objective meanings of social action or the Freudian ego and super-ego = split. In=20 his conceptualization of European history since the Middle Ages, Elias = departs=20 from the Weberian thesis that Protestantism was one of the elements = which made=20 capitalism possible (in the Civilizing Process, the role of = religion is=20 not even debated=97it is simply absent), and from = Marxism=20 which looks at superstructures as a =93final-analysis-reflection=94 of = economic=20 infrastructures (Elias looks at state-formations as having a logic of = their=20 own).

Reddy, William = M. The=20 Rise of Market Culture. The Textile Trade and French Society,=20 1750-1900. Cambridge: = Cambridge=20 University Press, 1984.

&nbs= p; =20 Scott, Joan = Wallach.=20 The Glassworkers of Carmaux. French Craftsmen and Political Action in = a=20 Nineteenth-Century City. Cambridge, = Mass.:=20 Harvard University Press, 1974.

&nbs= p; =20 Alexander Gerschenkron, Economic Backwardness in Historical=20 Perspective (Cambridge = (Mass.),=20 1962).

&nbs= p; =20 Lawrence Stone, The Crisis of the Aristocracy=20 (1558-1641) (Oxford: = Clarendon=20 Press, 1965).

Thomas S. = Kuhn,=20 Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago = University=20 Press, 1962).

&nbs= p; =20 Latour, Bruno and Steven Woolgar. Laboratory Life: The Social=20 Construction of Scientific Facts. London: Sage, = 1979. A=20 book that belongs to what we now qualify as the new =93anthropology of = the=20 sciences,=94 i.e. a discipline (or sub-discipline) that focuses on how = the natural=20 hard-core sciences are produced and manufactured within the = laboratories, =E9lite=20 teaching colleges, staff recruitment, and the professional journals that = transmit and conserve scientific knowledge. A big step from the = =93idealized=94=20 Khunian paradigmatic view of the sciences that became dominant in the = last three=20 decades.

&nbs= p; =20 Shapin, Steve and Simon Schaffer. Leviathan and the Airpump. = Hobbes,=20 Boyle and the Experimental Life. Princeton: = Princeton=20 University Press, 1985. In the line of the =93anthropology=94 of Bruno = Latour, this=20 book tries to connect the political ideas of the father of = =93Absolutism=94 in the=20 Anglo-Saxon world with those of the natural experimental=20 sciences.

&nbs= p; =20 Ernst Cassirer, The Philosophy of the = Enlightenment (1951). The=20 enlightenment within a Kantian perspective. A book that remains a=20 classic.

=20 Peter Gay, = The=20 Cultivation of Hatred. The Bourgeois Experience: Victoria to Freud. = Volume=20 3 (New=20 York: Norton, 1993). This is the third volume after =93Education of the = Senses=94=20 (1984) and =93The Tender Passion=94 (1986), and is fed by some rich = insights. Gay=20 argues that the Victorians were prone to mix cruel aggression and = ferocious=20 erotic pleasure; thus our Victorian legacy is a struggle to deal with = the joys=20 of aggression. The book also ends with a subtle analysis of the = development of=20 =93professionalism=94 and the way all these finer specialties became = finely guarded.=20 Unfortunately, the bulk of the book forgets from time to time such rich = insights=20 and the reader is left with a bunch of facts that ranges from the very = obvious=20 to the sophisticated.

&nbs= p; =20 Carlo Ginzburg, The Cheese and the Worms. The Cosmos of a=20 Sixteenth-Century Miller (Johns = Hopkins, 1980).=20 Ginzburg argues that the heretical thoughts of Menocchio, his = sixteenth-century=20 miller, were the effect of an old rural popular culture despite the fact = that=20 Menocchio was an avid reader of some medieval texts. In a footnote added = later=20 as a response to critics (pp. 154/5), Ginzburg claims a circularity=97or = complementarity=97between =E9lite and popular cultures. Looked upon = retrospectively,=20 two decades after the publication of the original Italian edition, which = made a=20 sensation, Ginzburg=92s thesis on popular culture is neither convincing = nor=20 interesting. Going through Ginzburg=92s 62 short partitions, one is more = puzzled=20 by the Church=92s insatiable willingness to force Menocchio = =93confess=94 than by a=20 popular culture which we can hardly see and = perceive.

&nbs= p; =20 Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic. Studies in = Popular=20 Beliefs in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century England (London: = Weidenfeld=20 & Nicholson, 1971; reed., Penguin Books, 1991).

Denis Mack = Smith,=20 Mazzini (Yale = University Press,=20 1995). The best biography available of one of those whose contribution = weighted=20 the most on the events that led to the =93unification=94 of Italy in = 1860 under=20 Victor Immanuel. Mazzini was described by Nietzsche as =93the man I = venerate=20 most,=94 and denounced by Marx for =93false sublimity, puffy grandeur, = verbosity and=20 prophetic mysticism.=94 But in fact Mazzini gave only grudging approval = to=20 unification as it actually happened, even after Venetia had been = incorporated in=20 1866 and Rome in 1870. He had wanted Italy to be made from below, for it = to be=20 socialist and republican (in his particular senses of those words) and = to be=20 reconciled with the papacy. Mack Smith is also the author of Cavour = and=20 Garibaldi 1860: A Study in Political Conflict (Cambridge = University=20 Press, 1954; 1985); Garibaldi (London: = Hutchinson,=20 1957); Victor Immanuel, Cavour, and the Risorgimento (Oxford = University=20 Press, 1971); Italy and Its Monarchy (Yale = University Press,=20 1990); Mussolini (London: = Weidenfeld and=20 Nicolson, 1981); Cavour (London: = Methuen,=20 1985).

Edmund Burke,=20 Reflections on the Revolution in France, 1969. A great = classic.

&nbs= p; =20 Alfred Cobban, The Social Interpretation of the French=20 Revolution (London,=20 1964).

&nbs= p; =20 Fran=E7ois Furet & Mona Ozouf, Critical Dictionary of the = French=20 Revolution (Harvard = University=20 Press, 1989). A =93dictionary=94 of the French Revolution organized in = thematic and=20 biographic articles.

&nbs= p; =20 Roger Chartier, The Cultural Origins of the French=20 Revolution, 1990. Focuses = on ideas=20 and their =93public=94 circulation before and after = 1789.

&nbs= p; =20 Alexis de Tocqueville, The Old Regime and the French=20 Revolution, 1955. A great = classic=20 by the author of Democracy in America. Tocqueville = was among=20 the first to argue that much of what is usually attributed to the = Revolution,=20 namely the centralization of the state and its bureaucracy; the = advancement of=20 the =93bourgeoisie=94 as a class, etc., were already part of the policy = of the old=20 monarchical regime.

&nbs= p; =20 Sewell, William H., Jr. Work and Revolution in France. The = Language of=20 Labor from the Old Regime to 1848. Cambridge: = Cambridge=20 University Press, 1980. A classic on the French guilds, manufactures and = labor=20 force, and the first major historian to apply the Thompsonian = problematic to=20 France. An attempt to explain the rise of socialism and the making of = the French=20 working class. Sewell chose to highlight the culturalist theme and = argued that=20 =93socialism=94 was essentially a cultural reconstruction of an = eighteenth-century=20 guild tradition of moral collectivism.

&nbs= p; =20 Sonenscher, Michael. Work and Wages. Natural Law, Politics, = and the=20 Eighteenth-Century French Trades. Cambridge: = Cambridge=20 University Press, 1989.

&nbs= p; =20 Robert Darnton, The Literacy Underground of the Old=20 Regime=20 (Cambridge, Mass., 1982).

&nbs= p; =20 Barry M. Shapiro, Revolutionary Justice in Paris,=20 1789-1790 (Cambridge = University=20 Press, 1993), addresses the subject of political crime in the first year = of the=20 French Revolution.

&nbs= p; =20 de Baecque, Antoine. Le corps de l=92histoire. M=E9taphores et = politiques=20 (1770-1800). = Paris:=20 Calmann-L=E9vy, 1993.

=20 Lynn Hunt, = The=20 Family Romance of the French Revolution (University of California = Press, 1992),=20 analyzes the images and familial models that inhabited revolutionary=20 France.

Peter Kolchin, = American Slavery, 1619-1877 (New York: = Hill &=20 Wang, 1993), is an excellent introduction to the subject of slavery with = an=20 annotated bibliography for further reading.

&nbs= p; =20 Robert W. Fogel & Stanley L. Engerman, Time on the Cross: = the=20 Economics of American Negro Slavery (New York,=20 1974).

&nbs= p; =20 Charles A. Beard, An Economic Interpretation of the = Constitution of=20 the United States (Free Press, = 1963=20 [1913]). First published in 1913, Beard=92s radical interpretation = brought the=20 Constitution of the United States from its political =93idealism=94 to = its economic=20 roots. Scrutinizing the Constitution in light of economic forces, he = proposed=20 for the first time that this politico-legal document was shaped by a = group of=20 men whose commercial interests were best served by its=20 provisions.

&nbs= p; =20 Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America. = Tocqueville=92s analysis=20 of the American democratic system remains my favorite in its simplicity = and=20 complexity. The =93democratic spirit=94 is traced back to the first = Europeans=20 settlers who were suspicious of all the monarchies they had left behind = and were=20 thus not that eager to replicate on the new continent political systems = which=20 they saw as potentially corrupt because based on rigid hierarchies = between=20 individuals, classes, and status groups. Tocqueville then goes on to = show that=20 this basic idea of democracy=97that all men have the = right to be = =93equal=94=97is=20 reproduced at every level. Thus, several laws were promulgated in the = 17th and=20 18th centuries in New England and the North-East in particular = forbidding large=20 property holdings. In education, this meant the focus on =93practical=94 = matters=20 rather than on formal and abstract issues, a major weakness, according = to=20 Tocqueville, because it weakens artistic and scientific creativity. The = legal=20 system is analyzed in terms of the =93power of judges=94 to overrule = previous=20 decisions and interpret the Constitution (another particularity of the = American=20 system is that a singles Constitution frames both the political and = judicial).=20 But the greatness of American democracy has its dark side too, and in a=20 concluding chapter, Tocqueville is more than cautious about a type of = democracy,=20 which despite all its merits, also creates simple-minded individuals and = mediocre spirits who have no choice but to leave =93government=94 to a = group of=20 professionals.

&nbs= p; =20 J. C. D. Clark, The Language of Liberty, 1660-1832. Political=20 Discourse and Social Dynamics in the Anglo-American = World (Cambridge = University=20 Press, 1994). One of the latest attempts in the search for =93a deeper=20 understanding of the causes=94 of the Revolution. Clark makes three = general=20 claims: (i) that the years between 1776 and 1787 gave rise to a new = dissenting=20 conception of liberty which was the principal source of the ideas of = popular=20 sovereignty that some colonists employed against the traditional idea of = absolute sovereignty; (ii) that 1776 may be understood as a revolution = of=20 natural law against common law; (iii) that the American Revolution was = in=20 essence =93a rebellion by groups within Protestant Dissent against an = Anglican=20 hegemony.=94

&nbs= p; =20 Carl J. Richard, The Founders and the Classics. Greece, Rome, = and the=20 American Enlightenment (Harvard = University=20 Press, 1994). Ever wondered the influence of Greece and Rome on the = Founding=20 Fathers of the American Constitution? The addiction of the Founders to = classical=20 allusion has never been denied, but in the work of many recent = historians its=20 importance has been questioned. Richard=92s book is a refutation of such = doubts.=20 It was in America that the historical and the legendary figures of = antiquity=20 could serve as real models for conduct rather than oratorical = embellishment.=20 Though Greece and Rome were equal partners in the colonial educational=20 curriculum, it was to the Roman republic that the Founders turned for a = model=20 when they came to frame their constitution. Athenian democracy, = criticized by=20 Thucydides, condemned by Plato and disapproved of by Aristotle, inspired = in them=20 a fear of the tyranny of the majority. They favored instead what they = believed=20 was the =93mixed government=94 of the great days of Rome, the era of the = Second=20 Punic War. Should we then be surprised that very few people participate = in the=20 democratic process today?

Theodor W. = Adorno,=20 Mahler. A Musical Physiognomy (Chicago = University=20 Press, 1993). A major study by one of the leading Frankfurt School = giants that=20 focuses on one of the most important Viennese musicians at the turn of = this=20 century. Adorno shows that Mahler=92s music is the expression, in its = artistic=20 form, of the =93end=94 of the false =93totalities=94 that he found in = metaphysics (by=20 contrast, Beethoven would look very much Hegelian). Knowledge of = Mahler=92s nine=20 symphonies is, of course, a must for understanding Adorno=92s analysis. = For a=20 broader account of modern music see Adorno=92s Quasi Una Fantasia. = Essays on=20 Modern Music (Verso,=20 1993).

Pierre Bourdieu, Jean-Claude = Passeron,=20 Monique de Saint Martin, et al, Academic Discourse (Oxford: Polity, 1994). The = authors make=20 the claim that =93academic discourse=94 is a rare commodity, some kind = of =93cultural=20 capital,=94 in the hands of professors-researchers who find it contrary = to their=20 interests to propagate and =93popularize=94 especially among students = and other=20 faculty members who might not have access to types of discourse unknown = to them=20 and who are thus left in the dark on recent trends and discoveries in = the arts=20 and social sciences. Unlike other critiques from the political left, the = authors=20 argue that universities exert a conservative social influence not by=20 transmitting an intellectual heritage but by failing to transmit it. = While the=20 left and the right continue to bicker over whether the academic culture = students=20 absorb is too traditional or too radical, Bourdieu and his colleagues = question=20 whether students absorb the academic culture at all. Thus, it is quite = common=20 for professors either to claim that their students =93cannot understand=20 sophisticated theories,=94 or that it would be better, in a = class-context, =93to=20 avoid larky expressions and the like,=94 or to pretend that =93they are = already=20 =91familiar=92 with such-and-such an approach.=94 Academic discourse = ends up a=20 =93cultural capital=94 in the possession of the happy few who can afford = it. The=20 book, written and published in the mid-sixties on the basis of extensive = research on the French educational system, needs to be =93re-adapted=94 = to an=20 American context. My impression is that in the United States, a = particular kind=20 of academic discourse, which borrows extensively from the French gurus = (among=20 them Bourdieu, Lyotard, Derrida, and Foucault), is more common in the = Ivy League=20 and the top-twenty-colleges than in other, more provincial, higher = education=20 institutions. But even in the Ivy League, it remains to be seen how much = of the=20 academic discourse which Bourdieu and his colleagues have in mind is = transmitted=20 and =93absorbed.=94

Bourdieu, = Pierre.=20 =93Esprits d=92=C9tat. Gen=E8se et structure du champs = bureaucratique.=94 Actes de la=20 recherche en sciences sociales (96-97 1993): = 49-62. A=20 brilliant exposition on the =93origins=94 of the modern European state = from a=20 historical and sociological perspectives.

The=20 Qur=92=E2n is the holy = book of the=20 Muslims (in all their different factions and sects) delivered by God in = Arabic=20 to the community of believers (umma) through the = =93medium=94 of=20 the Prophet Muhammad in sessions of =93revelation=94 = (wah=EE). Thus Arabic = is not only=20 the language of the Qur=92=E2n (and the Sunna), but also a divine = language, the=20 language of God. All translations of the Qur=92=E2n are thus considered = as=20 illegitimate and inaccurate. There are several such=20 =93translations=94/=93interpretations=94 available. A classical one = would be that of=20 A.J. Arberry, The Koran Interpreted (Oxford = University=20 Press). For a recent =93reading=94 of the Qur=92=E2n, see Jacques = Berque, Relire le=20 Coran=20 (Paris: Albin Michel, 1993).

&nbs= p; =20 R. Stephen Humphreys, Islamic History. A Framework for=20 Inquiry=20 (Princeton University Press, 1991), is a long annotated and commented=20 bibliography thematically organized. Recommended for all those looking = at the=20 best in the field for sources available in English, French and German. = Some=20 references to primary sources, mainly Arabic medieval sources, are also=20 included. The problem with this =93inquiry=94 is that it excludes from = its field of=20 investigation all publications in modern Arabic, as well as Turkish and = Persian.=20 In short, this book is an excellent tool for a primary survey on the = status of=20 the Middle Eastern Studies field in Europe and North=20 America.

&nbs= p; =20 Marshall G. S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam, 3 vols. = (Chicago=20 University Press, 1974), is a landmark study on the =93origins=94 of = Islam and its=20 historical evolution into empires. Recommended for those interested in = Islam=20 within a comparative religious and geographical=20 perspective.

&nbs= p; =20 Ira Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies (Cambridge = University=20 Press, 1988), is a complete fourteen-century history of Islamic = societies.=20 Chapters vary in depth and horizon. No particular focus=97Tedious to=20 read.

&nbs= p; =20 Bernard Lewis (ed.), The World of Islam (London: = Thames and=20 Hudson, 1976), is a thematically organized book with chapters on = literature,=20 jurisprudence, sufism, the cities, the Ottoman and modern experiences. = Includes=20 hundreds of illustrations and maps.

&nbs= p; =20 Watt, W. M., Muhammad at Mecca (Oxford: = Clarendon=20 Press, 1953); Muhammad at Medina (Oxford: = Clarendon=20 Press, 1956), both are classics describing the life of the Prophet and = his first=20 achievements in Mecca and Medina.

&nbs= p; =20 Franz Rozenthal, A History of Muslim = Historiography (Leiden: E.J. = Brill,=20 1952); 2d rev. ed., 1968.

&nbs= p; =20 Roy Mottahedeh, Loyalty and Leadership in an Early Islamic=20 Society=20 (Princeton University Press, 1980), an excellent book, based on primary = sources=20 from Southern Iraq that describe the process and concept of=20 bay=91a in early = Islamic=20 thought.

&nbs= p; =20 Hugh Kennedy, The Early Abbasid Caliphate: A Political=20 History=20 (London: Croom Helm, 1981).

&nbs= p; =20 Jacob Lassner, The Shaping of Abbasid Rule (Princeton = University=20 Press, 1980).

&nbs= p; =20 Lassner, Jacob, Islamic Revolution and Historical Memory: An = Inquiry=20 into the Art of =91Abb=E2sid Apologetics =20 (American = Oriental=20 Series, number 66.) New Haven: American Oriental Society. = 1986.

&nbs= p; =20 The History of al-Tabar=EE (State = University of=20 New York Press, 1989), is a multi-volume series of the translation of = the=20 =93History=94 of Tabar=EE, one of the major historians and interpreters = of the Qur=92=E2n=20 of the early Islamic and empire periods.

&nbs= p; =20 al-Sh=E2fi=91=EE, Ris=E2la. Treatise on the Foundations of = Islamic=20 Jurisprudence, translated = by Majid=20 Khadduri (Islamic Texts Society, 1987). Sh=E2fi=91=EE was the founding = father of one=20 of the four major schools of Sunni jurisprudence and the=20 Ris=E2la contains some = of his=20 major theoretical foundations on the notions analogy, = qiy=E2s, and the=20 ijm=E2=91, consensus of = the=20 community.

&nbs= p; =20 Martin Lings, Muhammad. His Life Based on the Earliest=20 Sources=20 (Rochester, 1983).

&nbs= p; =20 Newby, Gordon Darnell, The Making of the Last Prophet: A=20 Reconstruction of the Earliest Biography of Muhammad (Columbia: = University=20 of South Carolina Press, 1989).

&nbs= p; =20 Maxime Rodinson, Muhammad (Pantheon, = 1971), is an=20 interesting interpretation of the early Islamic period based on a social = and=20 economic analysis of the Arabian Peninsula at the dawn of=20 Islam.

&nbs= p; =20 M. A. Shaban, Islamic History. A New = Interpretation, 2 vol. = (Cambridge=20 University Press, 1971), is an attempt towards a new interpretation of = the=20 =91Abb=E2sid Revolution of the eight century as a movement of = assimilation of Arabs=20 and non-Arabs into an =93equal rights=94 Empire.

&nbs= p; =20 Mohammad Hashim Kamali, Principles of Islamic=20 Jurisprudence (Cambridge, = 1991). See=20 also the great classic of Joseph Schacht, The Origins of Muhammadan=20 Jurisprudence (Oxford: = Clarendon=20 Press, 1950).

&nbs= p; =20 Ignaz Goldziher, Introduction to Islamic Theology and=20 Law=20 (Princeton University Press, 1981).

&nbs= p; =20 Fred Donner, The Early Islamic Conquests (Princeton = University=20 Press, 1981), reconstructs the early Islamic Conquests=20 (fut=FBh=E2t) from a = wealth of=20 Arabic chronicles and literary and ethnographic = sources.

&nbs= p; =20 Bernard Lewis, The Political Language of Islam (Chicago = University=20 Press, 1988), discusses the notion of =93government=94 and = =93politics=94 in Islamic=20 societies.

&nbs= p; =20 Patricia Crone, Slaves on Horses. The Evolution of the Islamic = Polity=20 (Cambridge University Press, 1980); id., Meccan Trade and the Rise of = Islam=20 (Princeton University Press, 1987), questions the thesis concerning the = =93trade=20 boom=94 in seventh-century Arabia.

&nbs= p; =20 Mahmood Ibrahim, Merchant Capital and Islam (Austin: = University of=20 Texas Press, 1990), links the rise of Islam and the Islamic state with = the=20 emergence of a mercantile society in Mecca and views the Arab expansion = as the=20 means by which merchants consolidated their political=20 ascendancy.

&nbs= p; =20 Ann Lambton, Continuity and Change in Medieval Persia. Aspects = of=20 Administrative, Economic and Social History, 11th-14th = Century (The Persian = Heritage=20 Foundation, 1988).

&nbs= p; =20 Dominique Urvoy, Ibn Rushd (Averroes) (Routledge, = 1991).=20 Henry Corbin, Avicenna and the Visionary Recital (Princeton = University=20 Press, 1960), is an analysis and interpretation of Hayy ibn=20 Yaqz=E2n.

&nbs= p; =20 Salma Khadra Jayyusi, editor, The Legacy of Muslim=20 Spain=20 (Leiden: Brill, 1993). See also L. P. Harvey, Islamic Spain, 1250 to=20 1500=20 (Chicago University Press, 1990).

For a general = social=20 history of The Ottoman Empire, see H.A.R. Gibb and Harold Bowen, = Islamic=20 Society and the West, Volume One, = 2 parts=20 (London: Oxford University Press, 1950-57).

&nbs= p; =20 For a general chronological history of the Ottoman Empire, see = Stanford=20 Shaw & Ezel Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern=20 Turkey,=20 2 vols., (Cambridge, 1977). See also M. A. Cook (ed.), A History of = the=20 Ottoman Empire to 1730 (Cambridge = University=20 Press, 1976).

&nbs= p; =20 Paul Wittek, The Rise of the Ottoman Empire (London, = 1963). A short=20 monograph on the nature of early Ottoman = expansion.

&nbs= p; =20 For a narrative account of the rise of the Ottoman Empire viewed = from the=20 standpoint of historical geography, see Donald Edgar Pitcher, An = Historical=20 Geography of the Ottoman Empire. From earliest times to the end of the = Sixteenth=20 Century with detailed maps to illustrate the expansion of the=20 Sultanate (Leiden: E. = J. Brill,=20 1972).

&nbs= p; =20 George Young, Corps de droit ottoman, 7 vol. = (Oxford, 1905-6)=20 contains selections from = the=20 Ottoman judicial code.

&nbs= p; =20 Halil Inalcik & Donald Quataert, eds., An Economic and = Social=20 History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1914 (Cambridge = University=20 Press, 1994). In four chronological sections, the contributors provide = valuable=20 information on land tenure systems, population, trade and commerce and = the=20 industrial economy.

Joseph Needham, Science and=20 Civilization in China=20 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, vol. 1-3,=20 1956-1959).